By Nicklas Clark

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I. Introduction: The Urban Tide is Rising (and We Must Build Up)

The world is becoming a city. It’s not a distant future scenario; it’s the reality of today. Every week, over a million people are added to the global urban population – equivalent to adding a city the size of Amsterdam every single week. This unprecedented urban migration is reshaping our planet, concentrating humanity in dense hubs of activity and innovation. But this ‘urban tide,’ as it rises, is also forcing us to confront a critical question: how will we house, sustain, and nurture these burgeoning urban populations? For too long, the default answer has been outward expansion, a relentless march of sprawl that consumes land, strains resources, and too often diminishes the very qualities that make cities thrive. This approach is no longer viable. Facing a future of billions more city dwellers, there is a fundamental truth we must embrace, a direction we must commit to: The Only Way is Up.

This article argues that increasing urban density, achieved primarily through vertical development, is not merely a preferable option, but an absolute necessity for a sustainable and prosperous future. We will explore how building upwards, rather than outwards, can unlock a cascade of benefits: boosting economic dynamism, championing environmental responsibility, and fostering vibrant, inclusive communities. From the imperative of land conservation to the urgent need to reduce our carbon footprint, from the promise of revitalised economies to the creation of more socially connected urban realms – the answer to the challenges of urbanisation lies in embracing verticality. Join us as we make the case for why, for the cities of tomorrow, the only way is up.

II. The Inevitable Ascent: Why Density is No Longer Optional

The statistics are stark and undeniable: humanity is rapidly becoming an urban species. The United Nations projects that by mid-century, nearly 70% of the world’s population will reside in cities. This isn’t just a gradual shift; it’s a seismic transformation, compressing billions more people into urban footprints that are, in many cases, already straining at the seams. From megacities in Asia to burgeoning metropolises in Africa and Latin America, the global urban population is not just growing – it’s accelerating. This relentless upward trend in urbanisation is not a matter of choice; it’s a demographic force as powerful and predictable as gravity. We are in the midst of an inevitable ascent – a global climb into an overwhelmingly urban future.

And within this global ascent, nations like Australia face particularly acute pressures. While possessing a vast landmass, much of it is arid, infertile, or environmentally sensitive. Consider that each year, Australia’s population swells by approximately the equivalent of adding another Canberra – a city of hundreds of thousands, demanding homes, workplaces, and services, all within a continent where arable land and readily accessible resources are finite. This annual “Canberra-sized” growth, compounded year after year, underscores a fundamental reality: the land available for low-density sprawl, particularly in desirable coastal regions, is simply not limitless. We are rapidly approaching ecological and practical boundaries.

The historical response to urban growth – outward expansion, the sprawling suburb – is revealing itself to be profoundly unsustainable. Sprawl, with its low-density housing, car-dependent lifestyles, and fragmented communities, devours precious green spaces, isolates populations, and imposes immense strains on infrastructure networks. Long commutes become the norm, car ownership becomes a necessity, and the sense of community dissipates across vast, disconnected landscapes. Environmentally, sprawl is a disaster, exacerbating carbon emissions through increased driving, contributing to habitat loss, and undermining the very ecosystems that sustain us. Economically, it is inefficient, stretching infrastructure costs across wider areas, demanding ever-increasing investments in roads and utilities, and ultimately reducing productivity as valuable time is lost in transit.

Faced with these converging realities – relentless urbanisation, finite resources, and the demonstrated failures of sprawl – the conclusion becomes inescapable: density is no longer optional. It is not merely a ‘smart growth’ strategy or an ‘environmentally friendly’ alternative; it is the fundamental paradigm shift required to address the urban challenges of the 21st century. As economist Leith van Onselen has argued in the Australian context, unchecked population growth policies, coupled with inadequate housing supply, are a recipe for perpetual crisis. The solution, therefore, cannot solely lie in limiting growth – though responsible population management may play a role – but must fundamentally involve optimising how we utilise our urban land. The ascent into density, into building upwards and inwards, is not just a trend; it’s an inevitability. It is the only viable path forward for creating cities that are not only sustainable but also prosperous, vibrant, and capable of meeting the needs of a rapidly urbanising world.

III. The Multi-Storey Benefits: Unpacking the Advantages of Vertical Density

To embrace density is not to resign ourselves to a cramped or diminished existence. Quite the opposite. When thoughtfully planned and intelligently executed, increased urban density unlocks a remarkable array of benefits, transforming cities into more dynamic, sustainable, and ultimately, more human-centred environments. Let’s explore the multi-storey advantages that vertical density can deliver:

Economic Engine: The Power of Proximity Dense cities are, and have always been, the crucibles of innovation and economic dynamism. The sheer concentration of people, businesses, and industries creates a potent ecosystem of creativity and productivity. Ideas flow freely, collaborations spark organically, and competition fuels constant improvement. This “agglomeration effect” is not just theoretical; it’s empirically proven. Studies consistently demonstrate that denser urban areas generate higher levels of GDP per capita, attract greater investment, and foster more rapid job creation. Vertical density intensifies this effect, bringing even more talent, capital, and enterprise into close proximity.

Moreover, dense urban centres cultivate diverse and resilient economies. A critical mass of residents supports a far wider range of businesses, from specialised services and niche retailers to thriving arts and cultural scenes. This economic diversity acts as a buffer against economic shocks, making dense cities more adaptable and prosperous in the long run. Furthermore, while the initial costs of land in dense areas are higher, efficient land use through vertical development can, with strategic policy interventions, contribute to relative affordability. By increasing housing supply in desirable locations, density can, at the very least, moderate the otherwise relentless upward pressure on housing costs, offering a pathway to more accessible urban living for a wider range of incomes – a crucial consideration in addressing housing crises like those faced in Australia.

Environmental Champion: Living Lightly on the Land In an era of pressing environmental concerns, vertical density emerges as a surprisingly powerful ally for sustainability. Perhaps the most obvious benefit is land conservation. By building upwards, we dramatically reduce the urban footprint, preserving precious green spaces, agricultural lands, and vital ecosystems that would otherwise be consumed by sprawling development. This compact urban form also dramatically enhances infrastructure efficiency. Dense areas optimise the use of existing infrastructure networks – water, energy, transportation, waste management – reducing per capita consumption and minimising environmental impact. It is far more energy-efficient and resource-effective to serve a concentrated population than to extend infrastructure across vast suburban expanses.

Crucially, density is a potent tool in the fight against climate change. By facilitating walkable neighbourhoods, cycling infrastructure, and efficient public transportation systems, dense urban environments drastically reduce reliance on private vehicles – the single largest contributor to urban carbon emissions. Shorter commutes, increased use of public transit, and a greater propensity for walking and cycling in dense areas translate directly into lower carbon footprints per capita. In essence, vertical density allows us to live more lightly on the land, minimising our environmental impact while maximising human potential.

Social and Cultural Hub: Where Vibrancy Thrives Beyond economics and environment, vertical density enriches the social and cultural fabric of urban life. Dense cities are inherently diverse, drawing together people from different backgrounds, cultures, and perspectives. This concentration of diversity fosters cultural exchange, stimulates creativity, and promotes greater social tolerance and understanding. In well-designed dense environments, community thrives. Walkable streets shared public spaces, and a multitude of local amenities create opportunities for spontaneous interaction and social connection. Far from being isolating, good density fosters a sense of belonging and strengthens community bonds by placing people in closer proximity and creating shared urban experiences.

Finally, dense urban areas offer unparalleled access to the very elements that make life vibrant and enriching. A concentration of restaurants, cafes, shops, theatres, museums, parks, and cultural institutions becomes economically viable in dense areas, creating a rich tapestry of urban experiences within easy reach. From world-class museums to neighbourhood cafes, from bustling markets to tranquil parks – density concentrates opportunity, culture, and choice, fostering a dynamic and fulfilling urban lifestyle.

IV. Challenging the Downward Spiral: Contrasting Density with the Perils of Sprawl

To truly appreciate the upward potential of density, we must confront the stark reality of its antithesis: urban sprawl. Sprawl is not merely a different form of urban development; it is a fundamentally opposing trajectory, a downward spiral that undermines the very qualities that make cities valuable and sustainable. Where density offers ascent, sprawl represents descent – into environmental degradation, social fragmentation, and economic inefficiency. Let’s draw a stark contrast:

From Green Spaces to Grey Sprawl: The Environmental Costs Density champions land conservation, protecting green spaces and vital ecosystems. Sprawl, in direct contrast, devours them. Each acre of suburban development is an acre of habitat lost, of farmland paved over, of natural landscapes fragmented and diminished. Where dense cities strive for infrastructure efficiency, sprawl breeds wasteful consumption. Long, sprawling infrastructure networks – roads, pipes, power lines – consume vast quantities of materials and energy to build and maintain, servicing dispersed populations at a far higher per capita cost. And while density empowers low-carbon lifestyles, sprawl relentlessly fuels car dependency. The sprawling suburb is designed around the automobile, necessitating long commutes, locking residents into car ownership and relentlessly pumping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Sprawl is not just an environmental footprint; it is an environmental liability, a downward drag on our planet’s health.

From Community to Isolation: The Social Costs Density, when well-designed, fosters community, connection, and vibrant social interaction. Sprawl, on the other hand, actively cultivates isolation and fragmentation. Vast distances, car-dominated streets, and a lack of walkable amenities in sprawled areas erode the public realm and diminish opportunities for chance encounters and spontaneous social connections. Where density thrives on diversity and inclusivity, sprawl often breeds homogeneity and segregation. Sprawling suburbs, often characterised by socio-economic and demographic homogeneity, can reinforce social divides and limit exposure to diverse perspectives and experiences. And while dense cities offer rich cultural tapestries and accessible amenities, sprawl delivers cultural deserts and amenity scarcity. Sprawling suburbs often lack the concentration of cultural institutions, entertainment venues, and local businesses that enrich urban life, leaving residents reliant on driving long distances for even basic needs. Sprawl is not just a different lifestyle; it is a socially corrosive force, undermining the very fabric of a community.

From Economic Engine to Economic Drain: The Economic Costs Density acts as an economic engine, driving innovation, productivity, and diverse economies. Sprawl, conversely, becomes an economic drain, undermining long-term prosperity. While density promotes efficiency and resource optimisation, sprawl fosters inefficiency and escalating costs. The dispersed nature of sprawl necessitates higher public spending on infrastructure, services, and transportation, stretching municipal budgets and reducing the efficiency of public investments. Where density attracts talent and investment through agglomeration effects, sprawl leads to economic stagnation and missed opportunities. The isolation and car-dependency of sprawl can hinder innovation and economic dynamism, as businesses and talented individuals are less likely to cluster and interact in sprawling environments. And while density can contribute to affordability through efficient land use, sprawl, in the long run, drives up the true cost of living. While suburban housing may initially appear more affordable, the hidden costs of car ownership, longer commutes, higher energy consumption, and limited access to amenities often outweigh any initial savings, creating a less economically viable and less prosperous environment overall. Sprawl is not just an alternative development pattern; it is an economic albatross, dragging down long-term urban prosperity and sustainability.

In stark contrast to the upward trajectory of density, sprawl represents a descent into a less sustainable, less equitable, and less vibrant future. To choose sprawl is to choose environmental degradation, social isolation, and economic inefficiency. Therefore, embracing density is not merely to select a ‘better’ option; it is to reject a demonstrably failing model and commit to the only path that leads upward – towards thriving, sustainable, and human-centred cities.

V. Reaching New Heights: Innovative Approaches to Vertical Urbanism

Having confronted the downward spiral of sprawl, let us now lift our gaze and explore the exhilarating possibilities of vertical urbanism. The imperative to build upwards is not a constraint, but a catalyst for human ingenuity and design innovation. Around the world, visionary architects, planners, and developers are already demonstrating that density can be not only sustainable and efficient but also aesthetically inspiring and profoundly enriching. We are, in essence, learning to reach new heights – both literally and figuratively – in how we conceive and construct our cities. Let’s explore some of these groundbreaking approaches:

Green Skyscrapers: Nature Ascending The stereotype of the skyscraper as a cold, sterile concrete monolith is rapidly becoming obsolete. A new generation of “green skyscrapers” are integrating nature into vertical structures in remarkable ways. Consider Bosco Verticale in Milan, a pair of residential towers that are literally vertical forests, incorporating thousands of trees and plants into their facades. These projects demonstrate that vertical density can not only coexist with nature but actively enhance it, improving air quality, reducing the urban heat island effect, and bringing biodiversity into the heart of the city. From green walls and rooftop gardens to entire vertical ecosystems, these innovations show how we can weave nature into the fabric of our vertical cities, creating biophilic urban environments that are both dense and ecologically vibrant.

Vertical Farms: Cultivating the City Skyward Addressing the challenge of food security in an increasingly urbanised world, vertical farming is emerging as a revolutionary approach. Imagine skyscrapers dedicated to agriculture, utilising hydroponics, aeroponics, and controlled environments to grow crops year-round, directly within the city. Projects like Plenty’s vertical farms and concepts for large-scale urban agricultural towers are pushing the boundaries of food production, demonstrating the potential to significantly reduce food miles, enhance food security, and integrate agricultural production into the urban landscape. Vertical farms are not just about efficiency; they are about reimagining the relationship between cities and food, creating more resilient and localised food systems within dense urban environments.

Mixed-Use Mastery: Vertical Villages The most vibrant and successful dense urban environments are rarely monocultures of purely residential or commercial towers. The future of vertical density lies in mixed-use mastery, creating vertical “villages” that integrate a diverse range of functions within single structures or closely connected vertical clusters. Examples like Pike Place Market in Seattle, with its layered mix of housing, commerce, and public space stacked vertically, or ambitious proposals for entire mixed-use vertical communities, demonstrate the power of combining residential, commercial, cultural, and civic functions in dense, vertical configurations. This approach fosters 24/7 vibrancy, reduces the need for commuting, and creates more self-sufficient and dynamic urban ecosystems within a smaller footprint.

Smart City Technologies: Intelligent Verticality Vertical density is further amplified by the integration of smart city technologies. From intelligent building management systems that optimise energy consumption and waste management to sensor networks that monitor traffic flow and air quality, technology is enabling us to manage dense urban environments with unprecedented efficiency and responsiveness. Concepts for smart vertical cities envision fully integrated technological systems that optimise resource use, enhance citizen well-being, and create more liveable and sustainable dense environments. These technologies are not just about efficiency; they are about creating more intelligent, responsive, and human-centred vertical cities that adapt to the needs of their residents in real time.

Reclaiming Public Space in the Vertical Realm: Perhaps the most crucial innovation in vertical urbanism lies in rethinking public space. Moving beyond the traditional ground-level park, architects and planners are exploring how to create public spaces within and around vertical structures. Sky parks, elevated plazas, rooftop gardens accessible to the public, and interconnected vertical green spaces are becoming integral components of innovative dense developments. Projects like the High Line in New York City (a repurposed elevated railway line) and concepts for vertical parks woven into skyscraper clusters, demonstrate the potential to create vibrant and engaging public realms at multiple levels within dense urban environments. This reimagining of public space is essential to ensuring that vertical density fosters community and enhances the human experience, rather than diminishing it.

These examples are just glimpses of the exciting innovations emerging in vertical urbanism. They demonstrate that “The Only Way is Up” is not a pathway to a dystopian future of concrete jungles, but an invitation to a creative and transformative era of urban design. By embracing ingenuity and challenging conventional limitations, we can build upwards to create cities that are not only sustainable and efficient but also beautiful, vibrant, and profoundly human.

VI. Navigating the Heights: Addressing Concerns and Ensuring Equitable Density

The ascent to greater urban density is not without its perceived challenges and legitimate concerns. To embrace vertical urbanism responsibly, we must frankly address these anxieties and proactively implement strategies to mitigate potential downsides and ensure that density benefits all members of society, equitably. “The Only Way is Up” must not become a pathway to inequity or diminished quality of life for some. Therefore, navigating the heights requires careful consideration and proactive solutions in several key areas:

Addressing Overcrowding and Congestion: The fear of “overcrowding” is a common knee-jerk reaction to density. However, well-planned density is not about packing people in like sardines. It’s about creating efficient and well-managed concentrations of population where smart urban design and infrastructure solutions mitigate congestion and maintain quality of life. Key strategies include:

* Prioritising Public Transportation: Investing heavily in efficient, reliable, and extensive public transportation networks – subways, light rail, bus rapid transit – is paramount to moving large numbers of people effectively and reducing car dependency, even in dense areas.

* Promoting Walkability and Cycling: Designing pedestrian-friendly streets, prioritising cycling infrastructure, and creating walkable neighbourhoods reduce reliance on vehicles for short trips and enhance local accessibility within dense areas.

* Smart Traffic Management: Implementing intelligent traffic management systems, utilising real-time data and adaptive signals, can optimise traffic flow and minimise congestion, even with higher population densities.

* Decentralisation and Polycentricity: Strategically distributing density across multiple centres within a metropolitan region, rather than concentrating it all in one core, can alleviate pressure on central areas and create more balanced urban ecosystems.

Preserving Green Space and Enhancing Quality of Life: Concerns about the “loss of green space” in dense cities are valid, but density can, and must, be designed to integrate and enhance green spaces, not eliminate them. Solutions include:

* Vertical Greenery and Rooftop Gardens: As showcased earlier, incorporating green walls, vertical farms, and rooftop parks directly into buildings creates accessible green spaces within the vertical realm.

* Pocket Parks and Urban Green Networks: Strategically creating small parks, green corridors, and interconnected green spaces throughout dense neighbourhoods provides accessible nature and respite within the urban fabric.

* Multi-Use Public Spaces: Designing parks and public spaces that serve multiple functions – recreation, stormwater management and community gardens – maximises the value of green areas in dense environments.

* Prioritising Public Realm Design: Investing in high-quality public realm design – attractive streetscapes, pedestrian plazas, vibrant public spaces – ensures that dense areas are not just functional but also enjoyable and aesthetically pleasing.

Ensuring Social Equity and Preventing Gentrification: Perhaps the most critical challenge is ensuring that increased density benefits all residents, not just the affluent, and actively combats gentrification and displacement. Equitable density requires proactive policies such as:

* Inclusionary Zoning: Mandating that new developments in dense areas include a percentage of affordable housing units ensures that density creates housing opportunities for a range of income levels.

* Affordable Housing Investments: Significant public investment in social housing and affordable housing programs is essential to create a robust safety net and ensure housing access for low- and moderate-income households in dense urban areas.

* Rent Control and Tenant Protections: Implementing sensible rent control policies and strengthening tenant protections can help stabilise housing costs and prevent displacement in rapidly densifying areas. (Note: Rent control is a debated policy; you may want to adjust phrasing if you have specific views).

* Community Land Trusts and Cooperative Housing: Supporting alternative housing models like community land trusts and housing cooperatives can create permanently affordable housing options and empower communities to control development in their neighbourhoods.

* Equitable Development Planning: Engaging communities in the planning process, particularly those vulnerable to displacement, is crucial to ensure that density projects are responsive to local needs and mitigate negative impacts.

Successfully “navigating the heights” of urban density requires a holistic and equitable approach. It is not simply about building taller buildings; it’s about building smarter, greener, and more inclusive cities. By proactively addressing concerns about congestion, green space, and social equity, and by implementing innovative solutions and equitable policies, we can ensure that the ascent to density is a pathway to a better future for all urban dwellers.

VII. Elevating the Human Experience: Social Fabric and the Walkable City

Beyond the economic efficiencies and environmental imperatives, the true promise of urban density lies in its potential to elevate the human experience itself. Cities are, at their heart, about people – about connection, community, and the vibrant tapestry of human life. When density is thoughtfully designed, it can foster a richer, more fulfilling, and more socially connected urban existence than the isolating sprawl it seeks to replace. Let us explore how vertical urbanism, at its best, can create cities that not only function effectively but also truly nurture the human spirit.

The Foundation of Flourishing: The Walkable City Walkability is the bedrock of a positive human experience in dense environments. Density enables walkability; sprawl actively undermines it. In walkable, dense neighbourhoods, daily life becomes less about navigating traffic and more about engaging with the world around you. Walking becomes not just a mode of transport, but a source of health, pleasure, and social connection. Pedestrian-friendly streets encourage physical activity, reduce stress, and foster a sense of place. Chance encounters with neighbours, local shopkeepers, and fellow city dwellers become commonplace, weaving a tighter social fabric within the neighbourhood. The walkable city is a human-scaled city, a city designed for people, not just for cars.

Weaving a Stronger Social Fabric: Contrary to the perception that density leads to anonymity and isolation, well-designed dense environments can actually strengthen social connections and foster a greater sense of community. Proximity matters. When people live closer together, share public spaces, and frequent local businesses, opportunities for interaction multiply. A bustling café becomes a neighbourhood gathering spot, a local park becomes a shared backyard, and community events become easily accessible to residents within walking distance. Vertical density, particularly in mixed-use developments, can create vertical communities, with residents sharing amenities, common spaces, and a sense of collective identity within a building or vertical cluster. This fostered a sense of community is a powerful antidote to the social fragmentation often experienced in sprawling, car-dependent suburbs.

Access to a World of Enrichment: Density concentrates not just people, but also opportunities for enrichment and enjoyment. Dense urban areas offer unparalleled access to a vast array of resources, amenities, and cultural experiences. A short walk from home can lead to diverse restaurants, independent bookstores, live music venues, art galleries, theatres, and a multitude of shops and services. This concentration of culture and commerce creates a stimulating and vibrant urban environment, enriching daily life and offering residents a wealth of choices and experiences readily available at their doorstep. For families, density provides access to better schools, healthcare, and a wider range of extracurricular activities for children. For individuals of all ages, it offers greater access to employment opportunities, educational institutions, and a more diverse and dynamic social landscape.

Beyond Overcrowding: Vibrancy and Connection: The fear of “overcrowding” often overshadows the reality of vibrant urban life. Well-planned density is not about oppressive congestion, but about creating lively and stimulating environments where people are engaged, connected, and energised by the pulse of urban life. It’s about transforming streets from traffic arteries into vibrant public spaces, filled with activity, interaction, and a palpable sense of collective energy. The key lies in thoughtful design – creating human-scaled environments, prioritising public space, fostering walkability, and ensuring access to green areas within dense neighbourhoods. “Overcrowding” becomes less of a concern when density is synonymous with vibrancy, connection, and a heightened quality of life.

In conclusion, the ascent to vertical density is not just about building taller buildings; it is about building better lives. It is about creating cities that are not only sustainable and efficient but also profoundly human – cities that foster community, enrich daily experiences, and offer a vibrant and fulfilling urban life for all. By prioritising walkability, social connection, and access to opportunity, we can ensure that “The Only Way is Up” becomes a pathway to not just denser, but genuinely better cities for generations to come.

VIII. Conclusion: The Only Way is Up – Embracing a Vertical Future

We began by acknowledging the rising urban tide, a global wave of urbanisation reshaping our world. We explored the undeniable unsustainability of sprawl, the downward spiral it represents for our environment, our communities, and our economies. But we did not stop there. We turned our gaze upwards, towards the innovative potential of vertical urbanism, unpacking the multi-storey benefits of density and showcasing inspiring examples of cities reaching new heights. And finally, we affirmed that at the heart of this upward movement lies a profound opportunity: to elevate the human experience, to forge stronger social fabrics, and to build cities that truly nurture human flourishing.

The evidence is compelling. The challenges are undeniable. And the path forward is increasingly clear. For the cities of the 21st century and beyond, the only way is up. This is not a utopian fantasy, but a pragmatic imperative. Embracing vertical density is not about sacrificing quality of life for efficiency; it is about strategically leveraging density to enhance quality of life, to create urban environments that are both sustainable and supremely liveable. It is about building cities that are economic powerhouses, environmental stewards, and vibrant social and cultural hubs – all within a smaller, more efficient footprint.

The ascent will not be without its complexities. Navigating the heights of urban density requires careful planning, innovative design, and a steadfast commitment to equity and inclusivity. We must address legitimate concerns about congestion, green space, and affordability with proactive solutions and forward-thinking policies. We must ensure that the benefits of density are shared by all, and that no one is left behind in the urban ascent.

But the potential rewards are immense. Imagine cities where vibrant, walkable neighbourhoods thrive, where green spaces are integrated into the urban fabric, where innovation flourishes, and where communities are strong and connected. Imagine cities that are resilient to climate change, that minimise their environmental impact, and that offer a higher quality of life to millions – or even billions – of residents. This is not just a dream; it is an achievable future, a future within our grasp if we choose to embrace the vertical path.

Therefore, let us move forward with purpose and vision. Let us challenge outdated assumptions about urban development and embrace the transformative power of density. Let us demand innovative urban planning, prioritise sustainable building practices, and advocate for equitable policies that ensure the benefits of vertical urbanism are accessible to all. Let us, in essence, commit to building upwards – not with trepidation, but with optimism and determination. For in this ascent, in The Only Way is Up, lies the promise of a brighter, more sustainable, and more human future for our cities, and for the world.